Sir Robert Peel And The New Metropolitan Police - 2333 Words

Sir Robert Peel, (1788-1850), was a British statesman who has been largely credited with creating or founding the first Metropolitan Police Force in London, England. Peel was serving in the capacity of Home Secretary in 1829 when Parliament passed the London Metropolitan Police Act which established a 1,000 member police force in London (Bohm, 2010). Peel organized the new Metropolitan Police based on nine tenets, which over time became 12 standards. Many of these 12 standards are still in use today, not only in England, but here in the United States as well. Peel organized his Metropolitan Police Force based on his first standard, and that is that â€Å"the police must be stable, efficient, and organized along military lines† (Bohm, 2010, p.141). Up until this time, policing in England had been loosely organized, and there was no central leadership. Whether it was the Tithing System, where 10 families joined together to abide by and enforce the rules in their area, or the Con stable Watch System, which was used later, the police in England had little organization or training (Bohm, 2010). That changed under Peel, and his first standard of organizing the police along military lines brought order and leadership to the police force. There were officers of higher ranks, like the military, who supervised the actions of the lower ranked officers. Law enforcement departments today are still organized in this para-military manner. Every police department has supervisors ofShow MoreRelatedSir Robert Peel Essay847 Words   |  4 PagesSir Robert Peel Review Danny Granillo CJA 214 September 27th, 2011 Jason Hillis Sir Robert Peel Review American policing has been around for years and is extremely likely to be around for hundreds of generations to come. Very early policing and punishments could include public humiliation and even torture. Times have changed since the beginnings of police tactics now it is incredibly uncommon to see public humiliation due to a crime. American policing has changed multiple times over the pastRead MoreSir Robert Peel Paper920 Words   |  4 Pages The job of a police officer is very difficult, it has evolved from just an ordinary individual with no experience and no uniform that kept watch of live stock by walking at night with fire torches to an individual that needs to be able to function under pressure patrolling the streets of our communities in uniforms with a marked vehicle and not to mention to receive income for their services. Police has evolved overtime; in this paper I will describe the impact of Sir Robert Peel on the evolutionRead MoreSir Robert Peel Policing1064 Words   |  5 PagesRunning Head: SIR ROBERT PEEL Sir Robert Peel: Effects on Modern Policing CJA/214 Sir Robert Peel Paper: Effects on Modern Policing Through many years in our history, policing worked without checks and balances, and strictly with trail and error. The structure that was used in those days was not entirely solid in design. There was no procedure to fight crime and law enforcement had no basis. Then, modern policing began in the early nineteenth century. Sir Robert Peek finally allowed for a changeRead MoreSir Robert Peel and American Policing962 Words   |  4 PagesSir Robert Peel and American Policing Kristi Pursley CJA/214 August 15, 2011 Don Redden Sir Robert Peel and American Policing The history of policing dates back several thousand years ago when there was no order or peace and inhumane acts upon citizens was the norm with religious, political, or military police acting as the law. Policing was unstable and unorganized. Citizens took the law into their own hands and served as judge, jury, and executioner. There was not such a thing as beingRead MoreEssay on Role of Sir Robert Peel in Starting Community Policing1500 Words   |  6 PagesSir Robert Peel Policing has been a part of America for many decades. In fact, policing was known to exist prior to 1066, the year of the Normandy Invasion of Britain. Throughout the years policing has been a complicated and ongoing progress. The people of England did not have a stabilized policing standard and were often responsible for protecting and serving themselves. As early as the 1600s the Colonial America introduced the English styles of policing; citizens were responsible forRead MoreCompare And Contrast Robert Peel And August Vollmer1377 Words   |  6 PagesRobert Peel and August Vollmer There were many men and woman who made significant contributions to law enforcement and policing but Robert Peel and August Vollmer are some of the most well-known men. Through all of the people who built the law enforcement system the term general service law enforcement agencies is defines by Walker and Katz as agencies that regularly engage in preventing crime, investigation crimes and apprehending criminals, maintaining order, and providing other services. InRead MoreHttp: //Contentrader.Com/How-Sir-Robert-Peel-Influenced-Modern-Policing/#Comments1927 Words   |  8 PagesHow Sir Robert Peel Influenced Modern Policing | ContenTrader CONTENTCART OUR MISSION  WRITERS START HERE  INFO FOR BUYERS  TUTORIALS TIPS  TERMS PRIVACY ContenTrader An Open Market for Freelance Writers to Display Sell Written Content. SUBSCRIBE TO CONTENTRADER Search †¦ Enter your email address to subscribe and receive notifications of New Content, Site News, and Specials. CATEGORIES Academic Topics Email Address Activism Addiction Read MorePolice History Paper1117 Words   |  5 PagesAbstract Starting In 1829, Sir Robert Peel began developing his theory of policing. These nine principles are as relevant today as they were in the 1800s. Peel established the Metropolitan Police when he served as Home Secretary of England. Since Sir Robert Peel introduced his principles of policing in the early 1800s, our country has continued to follow his ideas of effective policing. Community policing is based on Peels concept of prevention. According to one of Peel’s principals, the realRead MoreRoles and Responsibilities of Public Policing vs. Private Security1652 Words   |  7 PagesPrivate Security ASJ-502 February 6, 2012 Abstract This paper explores the similarities and differences of public police and private security throughout history. How the criminal justice system and public police and private security are linked to each other. The essential policies that have been developed and how these police have assisted in the cooperation between police and private security. Finally, the need for a comprehensive security plan will be discussed and the reasons why each planRead MoreHow Community Policing Is Developed By Clans, And Tribes Among Other Ethnical Groups1402 Words   |  6 Pagesgrouped ten houses called a â€Å"tithing† out of every ten houses chiefs assigned a leader who was liable of the tithing’s behavior. The policing system kept evolving, public servants stated obtaining wages for their service. Moving forward, police officers have developed new strategies and skills to reduce crime rate in present time. The due process established by the U.S. Constitution privileges offenders to have a fair judgement and a justified punishment. However, as the structure evolve law enforcement

Gender Roles In The Scarlet Letter - 1665 Words

This current generation lies in a time of unprecedented growth and change. The last few decades have endured years of transformation, thereby allowing for the evolution of the human mind. The evolution of the human mind and its thought process all lies within cultural beliefs; beliefs affect attitudes and attitudes invertedly affect behavior. These behaviors may implement a form of prejudice and discrimination upon a certain group of individuals. Perhaps the most concurred concept revolving around attitudes and behaviors rests upon gender roles. This flawed concept created by man himself has indoctrinated society to acquire a negative perception of women. Women carry a stigma that they are both unintelligent and are subordinate to their†¦show more content†¦This ridicule has a trickle down effect on Hester as she too is banished from her own community for committing adultery. The comparison between Hester and Hawthorne defines the external struggle for the reader to fully un derstand the effect of opinions from society on them Although reluctant to allow Hester to leave prison, the members of the town suggest that her punishment is to wear a scarlet red letter A on her bosom, thereby allowing all to know of her crime. The scarlet letter â€Å" was red-hot with infernal fire, † (Hawthorne 81) and defined the state she was currently in, that being eternal hell. Though she was forced to marry an older man at a young age, her rebellion to have an affair is not seen as an internal struggle that she overcame; rather, it is merely seen as a woman who sinned, a woman who shall therefore endure the punishment for the sin, rather than a woman who was never given a say in what she wanted with her life. Time and again, Hester Prynne is seen defying society by allowing herself to stand out from societal norm just as the roses â€Å"with its delicate gems, which might be imagined to offer their fragrance and fragile beauty to the prisonerâ€Å" (Hawthorne) d id. Instead, she returns to the community and is observed aiding those in need, all with seven year old Pearl by her side.Show MoreRelatedGender Roles : The Great Gatsby, The Mystery Of Heroism, And The Scarlet Letter1862 Words   |  8 Pages To quote author Chimamanda Adichie, â€Å"Imagine how much happier we would be, how much freer to be our true individual selves, if we didn t have the weight of gender expectations.† However, the influence of gender is pervasive from jobs to the military, even extending to education. Men are generally characterized as strong and independent. Women, on the other hand, are supposed to be more feeble and domestic by societal standards. These distinctions have always been the case in the United States,Read MoreThe Gender Of The Scarlet Letter888 Words   |  4 PagesThe Gender Spheres in Puritan Society and Their Importance in the Scarlet Letter Throughout the history of the last few centuries, an ongoing conflict in society has been the roles of the public and private spheres. The first of these has been mainly represented by men, taking on the positions of power and dominance, working outside of the home. The latter however was primarily controlled by their female counterparts; their positions as wives and mothers being all that mattered. In the private sphereRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1641 Words   |  7 PagesThe Scarlet Letter is a story about a woman, Hester Prynne, who painfully lived her life in shame because of the adultery she committed in a1840s American colony. The way she and the other characters conducted themselves after the reveal of Hester’s baby all show a deeper meaning into what kind of person each character was, which can be interpreted in many ways. The story was written by a man named Nathaniel Hawthorne, only about a decade after his story took place, which meant that so ciety in hisRead MoreSummary Of The Scarlet Letter 1136 Words   |  5 PagesPuritan society, seen in The Scarlet Letter, traps many women in the confines of patriarchal gender role with its rituals and beliefs. These common beliefs caused many of the women in the community to feel oppressed and silenced. Amongst these silenced women, only a few chose to stand against these unfair and unjust beliefs. This minute group includes Hester Prynne, the adulteress whose scandalous life is at the center of the novel. Hester eventually breaks the common gender role, set in place by PuritanRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter : The Objectification, Ostracization, And Targeting Of Women Essay1523 Words   |  7 Pages The Scarlet Letter: The Objectification, Ostracization, and Targeting of Women. Kevin Sachtleben Harris- Period 3 â€Å"From the intense consciousness of being the object of severe and universal observation, the wearer of the scarlet letter was at length relieved, by discerning on the outskirts of the crowd a figure which irresistibly took possession of her thoughts.†(Hawthorne, 52). This quote from the top of page fifty two surrounds the most controversial event in the book from when Hester wasRead MoreIs The Scarlet Letter A Feminist Novel?1456 Words   |  6 PagesAshley Noack M. Chau-Lee English 3H 11/ 13/14 Is The Scarlet Letter A Feminist Novel? A feminist is defined in the British Dictionary as a person who advocates equal rights for women. However incredulous it may sound, women had to fight for rights for equality in things such as politics, economics, and their personal affairs. If the revolutionary feminist concepts were surfacing in the time of Nathaniel Hawthorne, circa 1850, then how was it that he was inspired to write Hester’s character? HoweverRead MoreHester As A Strong Female Character And The Scarlet Letter1572 Words   |  7 Pagesand The Scarlet Letter as a Feminist Novel In The Scarlet Letter, written by Nathaniel Hawthorne, a question arises: Is The Scarlet Letter a feminist novel? First, what is feminism? Feminism is â€Å"the advocacy of women’s rights on the grounds of political, social, and economic equality to men†. Feminism is really about a woman’s strength since the act of feminism causes a woman to go against traditional views and be ridiculed for that. What does feminism have to do with The Scarlet Letter? HawthorneRead MoreHester Prynnes Development Of Women In The Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1204 Words   |  5 PagesNathaniel Hawthorne’s,The Scarlet Letter, conveys Hester Prynne’s struggles against the oppressive Puritan society of the 1630s, which leads to the illumination of her progressive feminist views. Hester’s sin of adultery leaves her shunned from her pious New England community, but the extreme consequences that she encounters highlight the notion that she recognizes women as possessing equal capabilities and strengths as men. Hester evinces feminism throughout Hawthorne’s novel, without ever trulyRead MoreAntifeminist and Feminism within The Scarlet Letter1388 Words   |  6 PagesAntifeminist and Feminism within The Scarlet Letter In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter† Hester Prynne is accused and convicted of adultery. During the puritan era women in this society had specific obligations and rights they had to maintain. By Hester having an affair and acting unladylike the community disapproved of her actions causing everyone to isolate her in her town. Due to Hester Prynne’s Isolation and the harsh judgment she received from everyone in her town, she goes throughRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne And The Awakening1416 Words   |  6 PagesThe gender prejudice that exists in society does not only affect the individual being discriminated against, but the people close to them as well. This is demonstrated through the novels The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne and The Awakening by Kate Chopin. The Scarlet Letter follows the story of a woman named Hester Prynne who is forced to wear a scarlet letter â€Å"A† on her chest as punishment for her crime of adultery. The Awakening follows the story of a woman named Edna Pontellier and the

Fundraising For Charity

Question: Discuss about theFundraising For Charity. Answer: A Fund Raising Event By A Company For A Charity Organisation Introduction The project selected is the fund raising event by a company for a charity organization. The project is so chosen that the new and multi-national companies are increasingly involving in philanthropy. As a part of that the companies are more involved in generating the funds for the self-running charitable trusts as well as increasingly for supporting the organizations that work for the charity. The project involves the activities and tasks to conduct an event with an objective to raise some fund and forward the fund to an organization that works for charity and social cause (Cattani et al., 2011). The project is to be conducted by building a team to plan and organize the event. The project needs to figure out the budget and finances for the event. The budget is expected to be invested by the company initially. And the budget spent would be collected from the overall fund raised by the event. The budget is expected to be smaller amount compared to the fund raised. The project has to be taken care exclusively by the company. So, the company is accountable and responsible for the entire event and the fund that is going to be raised for the charity organization. The company is expected to explore multiple options to generate or raise the fund for the charity organization. However, finally, only one option has to be selected to implement. So, in this project, the selection of the viable and most potential options among all the other options is done with the help of the priority matrix. Eventually, the same option is going to be implemented. The project planning and implementation is developed for the finally selected option to raise the fund for the charity organization (Lock, 2011). Scope Objective The scope of the project is to collect the money, raised from the event and forward the fund to the organization that is pre-selected and that works for charity. The scope of the project does not include the branding of the company and profit of the company, though the branding and reputation may be increased for the company after the event. The scope does not include how the money is spent by the charity organisation (Wysocki, Robert, 2013). The objective of the project is to raise the fund for the charity organization, with no intention and process intended to gain the profit from the event. Deliverables The deliverables of the project are a detailed activities and tasks for the event to be conducted, after the selection of the appropriate event for charity organization. Milestones Development of the plan Making all the preparations for the event Completion of the event Calculation of the fund raised Submitting the fund raised to the charity organisation Technical Requirements The technical requirements of the project are the following. A computer Infrastructure needed to conduct the event Detailed specifications of the items presented in the auction Limits and Exclusions The limits and exclusions include the acceptance of the price, if it is within the pre-defined price by the company without losses. Other products and items are excluded, except for the auction items. Review with Customers Customer reviews are to be collected with the questionnaire posted in the home page of the company website. In addition, a function is enabled to add the review of the event and project by the customer. Priorities There are multiple ways to raise the fund for the charity. Since it is a good cause, public and people are inclined to involve and spend good amount of money in such events and projects. Eventually, there are many ways explored and implemented by the individuals, the charity organizations and the companies that support the charity organizations. Companies find many ways to conduct the events, as they already have good access to the public, in the form of their customers. The events can be conducted either by the direct organisation or even by outsourcing the projects to them. Here, in this instance, the company is going to conduct the event directly. The company is going to spend for the event and the human resources needed for the event are directly taken from within the company, by looking for the volunteers (Stellman et al., 2005). Most of the possible ways are explored and then the best way to raise the fund for the charity is going to be selected. Each of the way of raising the fund is explored, in terms of time, performance and cost. The constraint is considered to ensure the viability in terms of time taken to implement the entire event. The performance is considered in terms of how well it can be enhanced. The cost is considered to ensure whether the project can be accepted or not. The selected event is going to be planned for the viability. The basic priorities of the fundraising by the company are selected to be the following. Hosting a street carnival Organizing the competition Raffle selling Auction Organizing a dance-a-thon Imprisoning a celebrity Options Time Performance Cost Hosting a street carnival High Medium High Organizing the competition High High High Raffle Selling Medium Medium High Auction Less High Less Organizing a dance-a-thon High High High Imprisoning a celebrity High High High Table: Priority Matrix Time Scope Cost Constraint x Enhance x Accept x There are total six options selected to raise the fund. Among all these options, Auction is selected as it can be the most potential option for raising the fund. Based on the company and its functions, employees and the products that it handles, the company has decided to go with the auction. The option auction is selected, as it is going to take less time as all it needs is a few hours in a day. It is going to give much higher performance, as it involves intensive and high value items in the auction. It is going to take less cost, as the event needs the transport of the items, inviting the guests and the participation of the volunteer employees from the same company. Work Breakdown Structure Planning of the event Setting the objective Identifying the audience Deciding the type of fund raiser Identifying the deadline Studying the other similar fundraising events that run successful Create minute to minute activities of the event Build up a team Look and seek out for volunteers in the company Delegate the accountability, responsibility and authority Split up the overall tasks for the event Decide the professionals needed at the site Estimate the Budget Budget for hiring the site for the event Budget for logistics Budget for amenities Budget for professionals hired out from company Arrangement of the logistics Decide the date and time for the event Find location suitable Develop the schedule Negotiate for transport and finalize Plan for follow up Inform the volunteers Conduct an Event Take all the volunteers according to the schedule Take the infrastructure and other material needed Conduct the tasks and activities Post event procedures Clear the payments for logistics Clear all the bills and dues for services Clear the site Payoff for the services Fundraise Calculate the total amount generated Subtract the budget spent for the event Release the final fund raised amount to the charity organization Closing the project Relieve the volunteers Relieve the operations Submit the final report of the project Cost Estimation Task Name Duration Start Finish Cost Planning the event 2 days Mon 15-08-16 Tue 16-08-16 $100 Setting the objective 1 day Mon 15-08-16 Mon 15-08-16 Identifying the audience 1 day Mon 15-08-16 Mon 15-08-16 Studying the similar fundraising events 1 day Tue 16-08-16 Tue 16-08-16 Creating minute to minute plan 1 day Tue 16-08-16 Tue 16-08-16 Building a team 2 days Wed 17-08-16 Thu 18-08-16 $100 Look for volunteers 1 day Wed 17-08-16 Wed 17-08-16 Delegating the responsibilities 1 day Wed 17-08-16 Wed 17-08-16 Splitting the tasks 1 day Thu 18-08-16 Thu 18-08-16 Deciding professionals at site 1 day Thu 18-08-16 Thu 18-08-16 Estimating the budget 1 day Fri 19-08-16 Fri 19-08-16 $100 Budget to hire the site 1 day Fri 19-08-16 Fri 19-08-16 Budget for logistics 1 day Fri 19-08-16 Fri 19-08-16 Budget for amenities 1 day Fri 19-08-16 Fri 19-08-16 Budget for professionals 1 day Fri 19-08-16 Fri 19-08-16 Arrangement of the logistics 5 days Mon 22-08-16 Fri 26-08-16 $300 Deciding the date and time 1 day Mon 22-08-16 Mon 22-08-16 Finding the location 1 day Tue 23-08-16 Tue 23-08-16 Developing the schedule 1 day Wed 24-08-16 Wed 24-08-16 Negotiating the transport 1 day Thu 25-08-16 Thu 25-08-16 Planning the follow up 1 day Fri 26-08-16 Fri 26-08-16 Inform the volunteers 1 day Fri 26-08-16 Fri 26-08-16 Conducting the event 1 day? Mon 29-08-16 Mon 29-08-16 $5500 Taking the volunteers 1 day Mon 29-08-16 Mon 29-08-16 $1000 Taking the infrastructure 1 day Mon 29-08-16 Mon 29-08-16 $500 Conducting the tasks 1 day Mon 29-08-16 Mon 29-08-16 $4000 Post event procedures 1 day? Tue 30-08-16 Tue 30-08-16 $300 Clearing the payments for logistics 1 day Tue 30-08-16 Tue 30-08-16 Clearing all the dues and bills 1 day Tue 30-08-16 Tue 30-08-16 Clearing the site 1 day Tue 30-08-16 Tue 30-08-16 Payoff for other services 1 day Tue 30-08-16 Tue 30-08-16 Fundraise 1 day? Wed 31-08-16 Wed 31-08-16 $300 Calculating the amount generated 1 day Wed 31-08-16 Wed 31-08-16 Subtracting the budget spent 1 day Wed 31-08-16 Wed 31-08-16 Releasing the final fund 1 day Wed 31-08-16 Wed 31-08-16 Closing the project 1 day? Thu 01-09-16 Thu 01-09-16 $500 Relieve the volunteers 1 day Thu 01-09-16 Thu 01-09-16 Relieve the operations 1 day Thu 01-09-16 Thu 01-09-16 Submit the final report 1 day Thu 01-09-16 Thu 01-09-16 Figure: Cost estimation with top-down approach, Apportion method Conclusion The project has been developed with an objective of raising the fund for the charity organization. The charity organisation is expected to be selected already, before the commencement of the project. So, the entire project has been developed for planning and implementing the project of fundraising for the charity organization by the company. References Cattani, G., Ferriani, S., Frederiksen, L. and Florian, T. (2011) Project-Based Organizing and Strategic Management, Advances in Strategic Management, Vol 28, Emerald, David C. I, Gareis. R. (2006).Global Project Management Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional Lock. D. (2007)Project Management(9th ed.) Gower Publishing, Ltd. Epstein, G. S. (2008). Herd and network effects in migration decision-making. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34(4), 567-583. Harrison, F. L. Lock. D. (2004).Advanced project management: a structured approach. Gower Publishing, Ltd. Phillips. J., (2003).PMP Project Management Professional Study Guide. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003. Stevens. M. (2002).Project Management Pathways. Association for Project Management. APM Publishing Limited Paul. D. C. et al (2005)The right projects done right!John Wiley and Sons Stellman, Andrew; Greene, Jennifer (2005).Applied Software Project Management. O'Reilly Media Wysocki, Robert K (2013).Effective Project Management: Traditional, Adaptive, Extreme (Seventh Edition).John Wiley Sons.

Tobias George Smollett Essays (566 words) - Picaresque Novels

Tobias George Smollett Tobias George Smollett (1721-1771), Scottish novelist, was born in Dalquhurn, Dumbarton County Scotland. Smollett was born beneath a plane tree at Dalquharn House on the family estate of Bon hill in the Vale of Leven, near the village of Renton, Dumbartonshire. At fourteen Smollett was apprenticed to a Glasgow doctor. He studied medicine at Glasgow University and moved to London in 1740. He was a ship's surgeon in the Carragena expedition against the Spanish in the West Indies, and lived in Jamaica until 1744 when he returned to London and renewed his earlier attempts to stage a play he had written The Regicide, but still met with no success. He also failed to set up his own medical practice. His first novel, the partly autobiographical Roderick Random (1748), was an immediate success. His best novel, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771), has become a classic. It is a story, told in a series of letters, about the travels of a family through England and Scotland. Smollett was troubled by lack of money. He spent his last years in poor health, and died in Livorno, Italy, on October 21, 1771. Two years later, Johnson and Boswell stayed at Cameron House with Smollett's cousin James, who was preparing to erect a Tuscan column in Smollett's memory at Renton. Johnson helped compose the Latin obituary on the plinth, and the column stood in what subsequently became the playground of a school. Some of Tobias Smollett's work consists of The Tears of Scotland (1746). Poem on the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Culloden. The Adventures of Roderick Random ( 1748 ). Gil Blas. Translation of LeSage's novel. ( 1749 ). The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle ( 1751 ). The Adventures of Ferdinand, Count Fathom ( 1753 ). Don Quixote. Translation of Cervantes' novel. ( 1755). The Adventures of Sir Lancelot Greaves ( 1760 ). Travels through France and Italy ( 1766 ). The History and Adventures of an Atom ( 1769 ). The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker ( 1771 ). Some critics regard Tobias Smollet as more satirist meaning that a work of literature or art that, by inspiring laughter, contempt, or horror, seeks to correct the follies and abuses it uncovers. I don't know what that means though. This is a paragraph from Tobias Smollett's book The Adventures of Roderick Random. Roderick Random is the orphaned, unwanted grandson of a severe old Scots magistrate, exposed by his grandfather's known neglect to the malice of the community. His principal enemies are the schoolmaster and the young heir. It is not long before a deus ex machina appears in the form of a sailor uncle: He was a strongly built man, somewhat bandy-legged, with a neck like that of a bull, and a face which had withstood the most obstinate assaults of the weather. His dress consisted of a soldier's coat, altered for him by the ship's tailor, a striped flannel jacket, a pair of red breeches japanned with pitch, clean grey worsted stockings, large silver buckles that covered theree-fourths of his shoues, a silver laced hat whosecrown overlooked the brim about an inch and a half, a black bob wig in buckle, a check shirt, a silk hankerchief, a henger with a brass handle girded on his thigh by a tarnished laced belt, and a good oak plant under his arm. I picked this paragraph because here Smollett is describing the hero of the story Roderick Random. I believe it is important to have a brief if not full description of characters, so that you can imagine seeing them maybe even being there, in your mind, while they are doing what is described in the book.

Design and Fabrication of a Robot for Training Essays

Design and Fabrication of a Robot for Training Essays Design and Fabrication of a Robot for Training Essay Design and Fabrication of a Robot for Training Essay MOI UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND PRODUCTION ENGINEERING COURSE CODE: PRD5 80 COURSE TITLE: FINAL YEAR PROJECT PROJECT TITLE: DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A ROBOT FOR TRAINING PRESENTED BY: Dennis Chesire PRESENTED TO: DR. A. N. MAYAKA Submitted To The Department Of Mechanical And Production Engineering In Partial Fulfillment Of The Requirements For The Award Of Bachelor Of Technology Degree In Mechanical And Production Engineering Academic year 2007/2008 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this is my original work and has not been submitted for any award in any institution or university. SIGN †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ DATE †¦ Dennis Chesire CERTIFICATION I have read this project report and approved its presentation for examination. SIGN †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ DATE †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Supervisor DEDICATIONS I dedicate this design work to my family and all my friends for their inspiration and assistance even in times of difficulty. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The completion of this project would have been impossible without the help received from many people. First I would like to thank the Almighty Father in heaven for having brought me this far. To God be glory forever and ever. I would also like to thank Dr. A. N. Mayaka for the priceless moral and technical advice he gave throughout the design process of this project. Thank you for the shared documents and materials and the precious time you gave, out of your ever busy schedule. I acknowledge the assistance of the Head of Department, Dr. Boaz Korir for coming to my aid when Dr. A. N. Mayaka was away. I would like to acknowledge all my lecturers for the tireless effort they have put in my training. Mr. Kimutai the effort you put towards this project cannot go unmentioned. I want to also extend my sincere appreciation to all the Mechanical Engineering Department technicians, specially mentioning Mr. Akwiri and Mr. Oduor My parents, I will not forget your self sacrifice in an effort to support me all through my college life. Last but not least, all my classmates, I am very grateful. May God bless you all. ABSTRACT In this project an introduction on the need of adequate training on automation in higher learning institutions is looked into in a systematic way. First there is a general introduction of robotics in chapter one, robot classifications and robot applications is in chapters three and four. Chapter five consists of the design alternatives and their analysis. General introduction on component manufacture is given in chapter six. Cost analysis and the conclusion and recommendations are done in chapters seven and eight. TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATIONi Supervisor DEDICATIONSi DEDICATIONSii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTiii ABSTRACTiv TABLE OF FIGURESviii LIST OF TABLESix LIST OF APPENDICESx 1. 0 CHAPTER ONE1 1. 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION1 1. 2 PROBLEM STATEMENT2 1. 3 JUSTIFICATION3 1. 4 SCOPE5 1. 5 OBJECTIVES6 1. 5. 1 General objective6 1. 5. 2 Specific objectives6 1. 6 METHODOLOGY7 1. 6. 1 Source of data7 1. 6. 2 Target market for design7 1. . 3 Viability7 CHAPTER TWO8 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEW8 2. 1 Background8 2. 1. 1 What is a Robot? 8 2. 2 ROBOT GENERATIONS10 2. 3 Robot systems10 2. 4 CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS11 2. 4. 1 Classification based on structural configuration and robot motion. 11 2. 4. 1. 1 Revolute (jointed arm) robot12 2. 4. 1. 2. Polar (spherical) robot13 2. 4. 1. 3 Cylindrical ro bot14 2. 4. 1. 4 Cartesian (rectangular) robot, sliding type14 2. 4. 1. 5 Cartesian (rectangular) robot, gantry-type14 2. 4. 1. 6. SCARA- type robot15 2. 4. 2 Basic robot motions16 2. 4. 2. 1 Six degrees of freedom16 2. 4. 3 Classification based on path control17 2. 4. 3. Point-to-point (PTP) control17 2. 4. 3. 2Continuous path (CP) control18 CHAPTER THREE19 3. 0 ROBOT APPLICATIONS19 3. 1 General application characteristics19 3. 2 APPLICATION AREAS OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS20 3. 2. 1 Material Transfer21 3. 2. 2 Machine Loading21 3. 2. 3 Welding23 3. 2. 3. 1Spot welding23 3. 2. 3. 2 Arc welding24 3. 2. 4 Spray Coating25 3. 2. 5 Processing Operations27 3. 2. 6 Assembly28 3. 2. 7 Inspection29 CHAPTER FOUR31 4. 0TRAINING31 4. 1 INTRODUCTION31 4. 2 APPLICATION OF ACQUIRED SKILLS31 4. 2. 1 Middle managers31 4. 3 TREND IN KENYA31 4. 4 REASONS WHY KENYAN FIRMS NEED WELL TRAINED GRADUATES FROM LEARNING INSTITUTIONS33 4. TYPES OF TRAINING34 5. 0 DESIGN ANALYSIS36 5. 1 DESIGN ALTERNATIVES36 5. 1. 1 Comparison of alternatives38 5. 2 SPECIFICATIONS39 5. 2. 1 Task Specifications39 5. 2. 1. 1 Performance Specifications39 5. 2. 1. 2 Design Specifications39 5. 2. 1. 3 Dimensional Specifications40 5. 3 EXTENT OF THE ANALYSIS42 5. 4 GRIPPER MECHANISM ANALYSIS43 5. 4. 1 Gripping Force44 5. 4. 2 Torque required to produce desired clamping force-Power screws46 5. 4. 3 Power Required49 5. 4. 4 Pins50 5. 5 HOLLOW SECTIONS51 5. 6 BELT51 5. 6. 1 Dimensions of belt cross sections52 5. 7 FASTENERS53 5. 8 WASHERS54 5. 9 COUPLINGS54 5. 9. 1 Flange coupling54 5. . 2 Derivation of flange coupling formula55 5. 10 SAFETY FACTORS57 5. 11 KEYS AND KEY-WAYS58 5. 11. 1Wood ruff key58 CHAPTER SIX59 6. 0COMPONENT PRODUCTION59 6. 1 PARAMETERS FOR OPTIMUM PRODUCTION59 6. 1. 1 Product Analysis59 6. 1. 2 Operation Analysis59 6. 1. 3 Machine Analysis59 6. 1. 4 Operator Analysis59 6. 2 RESOURCE REQUIREMENT59 6. 2. 1 Capital Resources60 6. 2. 2 Tooling Resources60 6. 2. 3 Material Resources60 6. 2. 4 Human Reso urces60 6. 2. 5 Service Resources60 CHAPTER SEVEN61 7. 0 COST ANALYSIS61 CHAPTER EIGHT63 8. 0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS63 8. 1 CONCLUSION63 8. 2. 1 Recommendations for the Government65 8. 2. Recommendations for the university66 REFERENCES67 TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 1. 0: CAD/CAM layout 6 Figure 2. 1: Revolute Robot 14 Figure 2. 2: Cylindrical and Polar Robot 15 Figure 2. 3: Cartesian Robot17 Figure 2. 4: Basic Robot Motions18 Figure 2. 5: Typical Wrist Articulations19 Figure 5. : Alternative Design 138 Figure 5. 2: Alternative Design 239 Figure 5. 3: Shape of Object to be grasped40 Figure 5. 4: Determination of Principal Dimensions41 Figure 5. 5: Gripper mechanism44 Figure 5. 6: End section of Gripper45 Figure 5. : Power Screw Motions48 Figure 5. 8: Woodruff Key59 LIST OF TABLES Table 7. 1 Cost analysis 62 LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX I: Glossary Of Robotic Terms APPENDIX II: Nominal cross-sectional dimensions of Standard V-belts APPENDIX III: Typical coefficients of static frict ion values (Dry conditions) APPENDIX IV: Chain Dimensions and Breaking Loads of Base Chains APPENDIX V: Woodruff Keys APPENDIX VI: Straight Sided Splines for Machine Tools-4 splined APPENDIX VII: Single Thrust Ball Bearings 1. 0 CHAPTER ONE 1. 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION Robotics is a term describing a new academic and industrial discipline. Robotics is now a well established field of endeavor both in industry and research laboratories. There is a danger that the word may be used even in areas where it is inappropriate, so knowing precisely what a robot is, how it is controlled and how it may be used in specific applications is of the highest importance. As a result of the great advances of the last few years many industrial processes have become largely automated, with the human operator playing an ever decreasing role. The fully automated and unmanned factory is probably now only a few decades away. 1. 2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Many institutions of higher learning in Kenya have incorporated studies on automation in their teaching curricular for example CAD/CAM. Proper grasp of the underlying principles are best demonstrated to the students within a laboratory. It is in pursuance of this need that an effort is being made through this project to produce an automated cylindrical configuration robot model. 1. 3 JUSTIFICATION In the recent past there has been increasing world-wide competitions and many companies see, the use of computer-assisted production systems as giving them a chance of resolving the conflict of objectives between productivity and flexibility by introducing automation in a flexible manner. But it is not only the production techniques that are undergoing a process of change. Computers are also used to assist the functions that precede, accompany or follow production. The key words of this trend are: Computer Aided Design (CAD), Computer Aided Planning (CAP) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM). CAM means the integration of all planning, controlling, executing and monitoring functions of the production process on the basis of a computer network. Efforts directed towards automation and integration change the work content and working conditions of production. However, the success of a company’s commitment will be determined not only by selecting and applying the best technology but also ensuring that people and machines work together in the best possible manner. It is in this context that training is of paramount importance. There is therefore a need to introduce robotics to all practicing and training engineers so that the technology may be embraced in Kenya to aid in the attainment of Vision 2030. To attain this, a design of a simple configuration robot to aid in the displaying of the basic principles of robotics to training engineers is of great import. It is with this intention that this project is carried out as a follow up to what has been done previously on the subject. [pic] Figure 1: CAD/CAM Layout (courtesy of Robotics for Engineers Pg 308) 1. SCOPE The project will be limited to the design and fabrication of a pick-and-place robot of the cylindrical configuration type because of its relative simplicity. 1. 5 OBJECTIVES 1. 5. 1 General objective To supplement lecture room discussions on â€Å"automated industrial operations† with laboratory work. 1. 5. 2 Specific objectives i. To study the application of robots world wide ii . To develop and design a model of a simple cylindrical configuration robot for training sessions in the School of Engineering of Moi university iii. To fabricate a model of a simple cylindrical configuration robot using cheap available material 1. 6 METHODOLOGY 1. 6. 1 Source of data Development and design of the cylindrical robot is based on: Study of the available automated systems Review of related literature Inspection of layout of mechanical engineering laboratories at Moi University for compatible principal dimensions of the design Insight into the University curricular for suitability of the design needs 1. 6. 2 Target market for design Universities in Kenya Other higher learning institutions including polytechnics . 6. 3 Viability The completed design is intended for installation at the Moi university laboratories for use in demonstrations to augment theoretical lectures on automation. Other institutions should initially see the need to attach their students at Moi University before eventually buying the product to cut down on their training costs. CHAPTER TWO 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1 Background The word robot exis ts in many languages an evidence of its recent coinage. The term first came in use during the 1920s and 1930s, following the appearance of a play by the Czech author Karel Capek, called R. U. R. (Rossums Universal Robots), in the play small artificial anthropomorphic creatures strictly obeyed their masters orders. These creatures were called ‘robots’, a word derived from the Czech robota, meaning ‘forced labour’. 2. 1. 1 What is a Robot? A wide spectrum of definitions exists though few manufacturers or users will agree on any. In fact none has been accepted as standard. Since there is no standard for defining or for describing the functions of a robot, it would be helpful if consideration is given to the attempts that have been made to provide one. The British Robot Association (BRA) has defined the industrial robot as A reprogrammable device with a minimum of four degrees of freedom designed to both manipulate and transport parts, tools or specialized manufacturing implements through variable programmed motions for the performance of the specific manufacturing task (Chirouze, 1988 pg 17). The Robotics Institute of America (RIA) defines the robot as A reprogrammable, multi-functional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks. Japan Industrial Robot Association (JIRA) and the Japanese Industrial Committee in the ‘Glossary of terms for industrial robots’ defines the robot at various levels as Manipulator: a machine which has functions similar to those of the human upper limbs, and moves the object spatially, from one location to the other. Playback robot: a manipulator which is able to perform an operation by reading off the memorized information for an operating sequence, including positions and the like, which it learned by being taken manually through the routine beforehand. Intelligent robot: a robot which can determine its own behaviour /conduct through its functions of sense and recognition (Chirouze op cit). Computer Aided Manufacturers International (CAM-I) in the USA defines the humanoid aspects of the industrial robot as A device that performs functions ordinarily ascribed to human beings, or operates with what appears to be almost human intelligence. The definition supplied by the Concise Oxford Dictionary is ‘Apparently human automaton, intelligent and obedient but impersonal machine. ’ Another suggestion defines a robot in its developed form as An automatic machine with a certain degree of autonomy, designed for active interaction into the environment (Francis Sieglera, 1987 pg 2-4). 2. 2 ROBOT GENERATIONS There are several more or less clearly distinguished generations of industrial robots. The first generation robots are fixed-sequence robots which can repeat a sequence of operations once they have been programmed to do so. To carry out a different job, they have to be reprogrammed, often by â€Å"training† or â€Å"education† The second-generation robots are equipped with sensory devices which allow a robot to act in a not-completely defined environment, e. g. ick up a part that is misplaced from its ideal position, pick up a needed part from a batch of mixed parts, recognize a need to switch from one succession of motions to another etc. The third-generation robots which are emerging now have the intelligence to allow them to make decisions, such as ones necessary in assembly operations (assembling a prop er combination of parts; rejecting faulty parts; selecting necessary combinations of tolerances etc. ) Robots of first and so called â€Å"1. 5† generation (with some sensing devices) constitute the overwhelming majority of robots now in use and production (Francis Sieglera op cit). . 3 Robot systems However, regardless of the generation, industrial robots are built of three basic systems: The â€Å"mechanical structure† consisting of the mechanical linkages and joints capable of various movements. Additional movements are made possible by end effectors fitted at the arm end. The â€Å"control system† which can be of â€Å"fixed† or â€Å"servo† type. Robots with fixed control systems have fixed (but, possibly, adjustable) mechanical stops, limit switches, etc. , for positioning and informing the controller. Servo-controlled robots can be either point to point (PTP), where only specified point coordinates are under control and not the path between them, or continuous path (CP) controlled, thus achieving a smooth transition between the critical points. The â€Å"power unit(s),† which can be hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, or their combination, with or without mechanical transmissions. 2. 4 CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS Robot classification may be considered on the following basis: 1. Structural configuration and robot motion 2. Trajectories based on motion control 3. Performance characteristics of the robot. 2. 4. Classification based on structural configuration and robot motion. For this classification, three basic motions in the operation of robots need to be distinguished. Swivel motion- This is a rotation about the longitudinal axis of a link between two joints. Bending motion-this is a rotation about the transverse axis in the joint. Prismatic motion-this is a linear motion in t he direction of the longitudinal axis, either extensional or constructional (Eugene, 1988 pg 127-128). According to robots joint movements there are the following well distinguished basic robot configurations: i. Revolute (jointed arm) robot i. Polar (spherical)robot iii. Cylindrical robot iv. Cartesian (rectangular) robot, sliding-type v. Cartesian (rectangular) robot, gantry-type vi. SCARA- type robot 2. 4. 1. 1 Revolute (jointed arm) robot This is the type that best simulates a human arm, and is often referred to as an anthropomorphic robot. Because of this it is more easily adapted to an existing human workstation than any other type of robot. [pic] Figure 2. 1: Revolute Robot (Courtesy of; Reinventing Man, Pg 48) The revolute robot consists of three major rotary joints acting as the waist and elbow mounted at the end of the shoulder link. A typical example is Asea (IRb-6 Sweden) 2. 4. 1. 2. Polar (spherical) robot This robot rotates about the axis of its waist on the base. The second axis is a horizontal rotary joint, allowing the arm to rotate in a vertical plane. Making use of all the axes, the arm can sweep through a partial sphere. This mathematically corresponds to a polar coordinate system, thus this kind of robot is classified as polar. The third degree of freedom is provided by a prismatic joint built into the arm which allows it to move in and out. The robot can sweep through partial spheres of radii depending on the length of the prismatic joint. A typical example is Unimation (series 1000, 2000, 4000, US). [pic] Figure 2. 2: Cylindrical and Polar robot (Courtesy of; Reinventing Man, Pg 47) 2. 4. 1. 3 Cylindrical robot This robot consists of a base, a horizontal arm and a prismatic joint built into the horizontal arm. The whole base can move up and down. The horizontal arm swivels around the vertical column, describing a partial cylinder in space. This mathematically corresponds to a cylindrical coordinate system, thus this kind of robot is classified as cylindrical. A typical example is Prab (Model E, FA, FB, FC and Model G Series, Norway). 2. 4. 1. Cartesian (rectangular) robot, sliding type There are three perpendicular traversing axes, realized by an up/down, a left/right, and a forward/backward moving prismatic joint. This mathematically corresponds to a Cartesian coordinate system, thus this kind of robot is classified as Cartesian. Despite the fact that this robot is of high precision, it is not referred for many appli cations because of its difficult adaptability to the existing human- operated workstations. A typical example is DEA robot (Digital Electronic Automation SpA, Model Pragma A3000, Italy). 2. 4. 1. 5 Cartesian (rectangular) robot, gantry-type This type of robot has the same structure as the sliding type Cartesian robot. The only difference is that it has a gantry for keeping the robot in sliding operation. A typical example is IBM (7565, US) [pic] Figure 2. 3: Cartesian robot (Courtesy of; Reinventing Man, Pg 46) 2. 4. 1. 6. SCARA- type robot New robot kinematic configurations can be obtained by combining the properties of the basic robot representatives outlined above. For instance if the revolute and cylindrical robot kinematics are combined, the result will be a new type of robot called SCARA, where SCARA stands for Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm. Its rotary joints have vertical axes, allowing movement in a horizontal plane, which corresponds to both revolute and cylindrical coordinates. The SCARA configuration has vertical major axis rotations for which the gravitational load, Coriolis and centrifugal forces do not stress the structures as much as they would if the axes were horizontal. This advantage is very important at high speeds and high precision. The best examples are IBM (7535 and 7545. US), Meta Machines (adept one, UK) 2. 4. 2 Basic robot motions Whatever the configuration, the purpose of the robot is to perform a useful task. To accomplish the task, an end effector, or hand, is attached to the end of the robot’s arm. It is this end effector which adapts the general-purpose robot to a particular task. To do the task, the robot arm must be capable of moving the end effector through a sequence of motions and/or positions. [pic] Figure 2. 4: Basic robot motions (courtesy of An Introduction To Robot Technology pg 12) 2. 4. 2. 1 Six degrees of freedom There are six basic motions, or degrees of freedom, which provide the robot with the capability to move the end effector through the required sequence of motions. These six degrees of freedom are intended to emulate the versatility of movement possessed by the human arm. Not all robots are equipped with the ability to move in all six degrees. The six basic motions consist of three arm and body motions and three wrist motions, as illustrated in the figure below for a polar –type robot. These motions are described as follows: Arm and body motions: 1. vertical transverse: up-and-down motions of the arm, caused by pivoting the entire arm about a horizontal axis or moving the arm along a vertical slide 2. radial transverse: extension and retraction of the arm (in-and-out movement) 3. otational transverse: rotation about the vertical axis (right or left swivel of the robot arm) Wrist motions: 4. wrist swivel: rotation of the wrist 5. Wrist bend: up-or-down movement of the wrist, which also involves a rotational movement. 6. Wrist yaw: right- or- left swivel of the wrist. [pic] Figure 2. 5: Typical Wrist Articulations (Courtesy of; Reinventing Man, Pg 49) 2. 4. 3 Classification based on path control There are two basic forms of robot path control: 1. Point-to-point (PTP) control With point-to-point control the robot is programmed to pause at each point to plan the next step in a predetermined manner. Despite the fact that the motion is not controlled between the set points, it usually occurs along a natural path, depending upon the kinematic geometry of the robot. On the other hand the robot under continuous control can follow any arbitrary path accurately. A point-to-point controlled robot offers greater precision in terms of accuracy and repeatability. 2. 4. 3. 2Continuous path (CP) control The continuous path control results in a smoother movement along the defined trajectory but there is a speed penalty, which is a function of the step sizes computed by the master computer in real time using interpolation methods. The penalty may be a 15-25 % speed reduction, resulting in uneconomic control of the process, i. e. the efficiency will be lower compared with the same robot operating in point-to-point control mode. CHAPTER THREE 3. 0 ROBOT APPLICATIONS 3. 1 General application characteristics There are certain general characteristics of an industrial situation which tend to make the installation of a robot economical and practical (Poole, 1989). These include the following. ? Hazardous or uncomfortable working conditions. In job situations where there are potential dangers or health hazards due to heat, radiation, or toxicity, or where the workplace is uncomfortable and unpleasant, a robot should be considered as a substitute for the human worker. This sort of application has a high probability for worker acceptance of the robot. Examples of these job situations include hot forging, die casting, spray painting and foundry operations. ? Repetitive tasks If the work cycle consists of a sequence of elements which do not vary from cycle to cycle, it is possible that a robot could be programmed to perform the task. This is especially likely if the task is accomplished within a limited workspace. Pick and place operations and machine loading are obvious examples of repetitive tasks. ? Difficult handling If the work part or tool involved in the operation is awkward or heavy, it might be possible for a robot to perform the task. Operations involving the handling of heavy work parts are a good example of this case. A human worker would need some form of mechanical assistance to lift the part, which would add to the production cycle time. Some industrial robots are capable of lifting payloads weighing several hundreds (or even more than a thousand) pounds. Multishift operation If the initial investment cost of the robot can be spread over two or three shifts, the labor savings will result in a quicker payback. This could mean the difference between whether or not the investment can be justified. Plastic injection moulding and other processes which must be operated continuously are examples of multis hift robot applications. 3. 2 APPLICATION AREAS OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS Industrial robots have been applied to a great variety of production situations (Groover Zimmer, 1984 pg 257). These applications can be divided into the following seven categories: 1. Material transfer 2. Machine loading . Welding 4. Spray coating 5. Processing operations 6. Assembly 7. inspection 3. 2. 1 Material Transfer Material transfer applications are those in which the robot is used to move workparts from one location to another. In some cases a reorientation of the part may be required in this material handling function. Examples of material transfer robot operations include the following: Simple pick and place operations Transfer of workparts from one conveyor to another conveyor (basically a pick and place task) Palletizing operations, in which the robot takes parts from a conveyor and loads them onto a pallet in a required attern and sequence Stacking operations similar to palletizing Loading part s from a conveyor into cartons or boxes (similar to palletizing) Depalletizing operations, in which the robot takes parts which are arranged on a pallet and loads them onto a conveyor Material transfer operations are often among the easiest and most straightforward of robot applications (e. g. pick and place, transfer from conveyor to conveyor). Robots used for these tasks usually possess a relatively low level of technological sophistication. However in other cases the motion pattern can become somewhat complicated. . 2. 2 Machine Loading Machine loading applications are material handling operations in which the robot is required to supply a production machine with raw work parts and/or to unload finished parts from a machine. Machine loading is distinguished from material transfer operation by the fact that the robot works directly with the processing equipment. In material transfer functions it does not. In the typical application the robot will grasp a raw work part from a conv eyor and load it into a machine. In some cases, the robot holds the part in position during processing. When processing is completed, the robot unloads the part from the machine and places it onto another conveyor. Production operations in which robots have been successfully applied to perform the machine loading and unloading function include the following: Die casting Injection moulding Transfer moulding Hot forging Upsetting or upset forging Stamping press operations Machining operations such as turning and milling In die casting and plastic moulding, the robot only unloads the finished parts. For machining processes, the robot both loads and unloads the machine tool. In upsetting and stamping operations, the robot holds the work part while it is being processed by the machine. Some machine loading applications consist of several processing machines in a manufacturing cell, with the robot tending two, three, or even four separate machines. One of the more recent innovations in machine loading applications is to form a flexible manufacturing system using several robots to augment the conveyor system normally used in these production cells. 3. 2. 3 Welding The welding processes are very important application area for industrial robots. The applications logically divide into two basic categories, spot welding and arc welding. 3. 2. 3. 1Spot welding Spot welding is a process in which metal parts (sheets or plates) are fused together at localized points by passing a large electric current through the two parts at the points of contact. The process is implemented by means of electrodes which squeeze the parts together and conduct the current to the point of contact. The typical pair of electrodes have the form of tongs, which can conveniently be mounted on a large robots wrist as the end effector. Using the welding â€Å"gun,† as the electrode assembly is sometimes called; the robot accomplishes a spot weld by means of the following sequence: 1) Position the welding gun in the desired location against the two pieces 2) Squeezing the two electrodes against the mating surfaces 3) Weld and hold, when the current is applied to cause heating and fusion of the two surfaces in contact 4) Release and cool. The electrodes open and sufficient time is allowed to cool the electrodes in anticipation of the next spot weld This is the sequence that has been an ideal task for a point-to- point robot. pot welding has become one of the largest application areas for industrial robots, especially in the automotive industry. 3. 2. 3. 2 Arc welding Several types of continuous arc welding processes can be accomplished by industrial robots capable of continuous-path operation. These processes include gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding. These kinds of operations are traditionall y performed by welders, who must often work under conditions which are hot, uncomfortable, and sometimes dangerous. Such conditions make this a logical candidate for the application of industrial robots. However, there are several problems associated with arc welding that have hindered the widespread use of robots in this process. First arc welding is a fabrication process often used on low volume products. Hence the economics involved in these cases make the use of any automation difficult, robots included. Second, dimensional variations in the components being arc welded are common. Human welders can compensate for these variations. Robots can not, at least with current technology. Third, human welders are often required to perform their trades in areas which are difficult to access (inside vessels, tanks, ship hulls, etc. . Forth and finally, sensor technologies capable of monitoring the variations in the arc welding process have not yet been fully developed. As a result of these problems, robot arc welding applications have been fairly limited to operations involving high or medium volumes where the components can be conveniently handled and the dimensional variations can be reas onably managed. A typical robotic arc welding station would consist of the following components: A robot capable of continuous path control A welding unit consisting of the welding tool, power source, and the wire feed system A work part manipulator, which fixtures the components and positions than for welding The work station controller is equipped to control the wire feed and arc voltage with the robot’s arm movement the activities of the work part must also be coordinated by the controller. A human worker would be used to load and unload the work parts from the manipulator. There are several advantages attributed to a robot welding station compared with its manually operated counterpart. Among these are the following: Higher productivity Improved safety More consistent welds 3. 2. 4 Spray Coating Many large consumer products and most industrial products require the application of some form of paint. When human workers apply this paint, the most common method is spray painting. However the spray painting process poses certain health hazards to the human operator. Among these are: 1) Fumes and mist from the spr aying operation these create an uncomfortable and sometimes toxic atmosphere 2) Noise from the spray nozzle. This noise is loud and prolonged exposure can impair hearing. 3) Fire hazard. The mist of paint in the air within the factory can result in flash fires. 4) Possible cancer dangers. Certain of the ingredients used in the paint are suspected of being carcinogenic. Because of these health hazards, human workers are unenthusiastic about being exposed to the spray painting environment, and companies have been forced by law enforcement agencies to construct elaborate ventilating systems to protect their workers. For these and other reasons, specialized industrial robots are being used more and more frequently to perform spray painting and related processes. Spray painting requires a robot capable of executing a smooth motion pattern which will apply the paint or other fluid evenly and avoid rums. To accomplish this, the robot is equipped with continuous-path control. The paint spray nozzle becomes the end effector. To teach the robot, the walk through method is commonly employed. An operator-programmer manually leads the robot’s end effector through the desired paint spray path. This defines the motion sequence and relative speed for the work cycle. During playback, the robot repeats the cycle to accomplish the paint spray operation. Among the many advantages of using robots for spray coating applications are the following: 1. Safety: The many safety hazards encountered when human operators perform the spray painting process are reduced. 2. Coating consistency: Once the program is established, the robot will deposit the paint or other coating with the same speed, pattern and spray rate on every cycle. 3. Lower material usage: The robot’s repeatability and consistency reduce wasted paint. Savings in this category seem to range between 10 and 50%. 4. less energy used. This results from reduced ventilation requirements since the human operator is removed from the actual process. 5. Greater productivity: The paint spraying robot can perform the operation faster than its human counterpart. It can also be used at this faster pace for three shifts per day. 3. 2. 5 Processing Operations This is a miscellaneous category in which the robot is used to perform some manufacturing process other than welding or spray painting. Assembly and inspection operations are also excluded, and they are covered in the following sections. Just as in welding and spray painting, the processing operation is performed by specialized tool attached to the robot’s wrist as its end effector. The end effector is typically a powered spindle which holds and rotates a tool such as a drill. The robot will be used to bring the tool into contact with a stationary workpart during processing. In some applications which we will include within this category, the robot’s hand is used for gripping the workpart and bringing it into contact with a tool held in a fixed position. In the latter case, we begin to overlap with the types of machine loading applications covered earlier in this case. Some of the processing operations which have been performed by industrial robots include drilling, riveting, grinding, polishing, deburring, wire brushing, and water jet cutting. 3. 2. 6 Assembly Assembly operations are seen as an area with big potential for robot applications. Batch-type assembly operations seem to offer operations seem to offer the most promise for using robots. The reason for this is based on economics and the technological capabilities of the robot. For mass production assembly, the most economical method involves fixed automation, where the equipment is designed specifically to produce the particular product. A robot would probably be too slow for mass production, and one of the robot’s most important attributes, its programmability, would hardly be used. In batch assembly, there are variations in products and the demand for each product is significantly lower than in mass production. Consequently, the assembly line in batch manufacturing must be capable of dealing with this product variation and the line changeovers that are necessitated. What is basically required for batch production is a flexible assembly system. The term that some companies use for such a system is adaptable-programmable assembly system (APAS), and robot-type arms constitute and important component of these systems. The APAS will be composed of both conventional material handling devices (conveyors, parts feeders, etc) and robot arms probably in an inline arrangement. The robot arms will be used for some parts handling duties, but its main function will be assembly. Robot assembly operation would typically require an extension of the robots material transfer capability. Many sub-assemblies consist of a stack of components on top of a base part. To put together the sub assembly requires the placement of one part on top of the base and then the other part on top of that, and so forth. The robot is certainly capable of this sort of work cycle. Assembly tasks requiring a special skill or judgment which the robot is not capable, would be performed by human workers. The feature of an industrial robot that make it suitable as a component of an APAS line are its programmability and its adaptability. Programmability is required so that a relatively complex motion cycle can be carried out during the assembly operation. Also, the APAS must be capable of storing multiple program sets to facilitate the differences in products assembled on the line. On this sense the system the system would be adaptable to changes in product style. Adaptability is also required in the sense that the assembly system would have to compensate for changes in the environment. These environmental variations include: Variations in the position and orientation of assembly components Out – of- tolerance and defective parts The current state of completion of the sub assembly Detection of human beings or objects intruding on the robot work volume 3. 2. 7 Inspection Like assembly, inspection is a relatively new area for the application of industrial robots. Traditionally, the inspection function has been a very labor intensive activity. The activity is slow, tedious, and boring, and is usually performed by human beings on a sampling basis rather than by 100% inspection. With ever increasing emphasis on quality in manufacturing, there is a trend toward automating the inspection process and toward the use of 100% inspection by machines instead of sampling inspection by human beings. An important role in this area of inspection automation will be played by industrial robots. Robots equipped with mechanical probes, optical sensing capabilities, or other measuring devices can be programmed to perform dimensional checking and other forms of inspection operations. CHAPTER FOUR 4. TRAINING 4. 1 INTRODUCTION General education is received by all during the years spent in school. This is intended to form a basis on which people can build further levels of education and training to suit specific work roles (Timings et al, 1999). As a graduate trainee having first obtained an honours degree in Engineering, on joining a medium or large firm that has suitable training schemes ‘on job’ training will be done and several years of study and training are required so as to attain very high standards. A way needs to be sought to help shorten this period. 4. 2 APPLICATION OF ACQUIRED SKILLS The qualifications and skills gained through the right and relevant training can be applied to various roles of administration in the manufacturing industry. For example; 4. 2. 1 Middle managers These are professionally trained people who are still gaining management training. They are usually university graduates in various disciplines who have passed the qualifying examination of their appropriate professional institution. They assist senior managers by heading the divisions within departments and are to continually update their knowledge of changes in technology 4. 3 TREND IN KENYA In Kenya programmable automation is still at a relatively early stage of development and an even earlier stage of application, but then there is already a discernible trend away from the fragmentation of tasks towards a broadening of technical skills. This trend with the right and timely kind of training will grow stronger and stronger. Among the already discernible trend we have: a) The elimination of the distinction between manual and intellectual work. What is emerging is a division between high-skilled and low-skilled work. b) Need for further training due to the higher skill requirements and the need for flexibility c) Change of manager’s job from one of close supervision of personnel to that of overseeing a complex network of interrelationships within a department and between other departments. d) Decentralization of the functions of management and production control. The work group is being seen as the more desirable form of organization. The challenge in Kenya now lies with the introduction of broad based training at all levels. This will help develop compatible work organization that will bring together programmable automation technology on the one hand and graduates with a broad, general understanding of the production process on the other hand. Graduates need to be well equipped to be able to carry out the challenging tasks, they will find in working environments they will end up in considering the rate at which improved technology is being embraced. 4. REASONS WHY KENYAN FIRMS NEED WELL TRAINED GRADUATES FROM LEARNING INSTITUTIONS The vision 2030 can only be attained if among other reasons, our country can be in a position to manufacture and sell products within and outside the country and still withstand the various forms of competition from products from the economic giants like China and India. Because emphasis has always been on small an d medium sized companies, use of programmable automation needs to be embraced to help these companies to be motivated principally by a desire to keep with technical change so as to remain competitive. This can also help improve technical quality of products and also ensure faster production. Because of new technology and the economic situation, training methods that have been normal practice are gradually disappearing for example lengthy apprenticeships and in-house training. This now calls for many people, particularly the young people to enter into new areas of study either just at the start or throughout the course of their whole career in educational institutions. This will ensure that future recruits to any job won’t need much in-house training. The current needs’ qualifications and skills will gradually decline as well as the current training methods and career opportunities, therefore educational institutions need to ensure that they don’t just end up in redundancy. Training needs also to be done so as to be an assurance of safety. The number of accidents may fall due to improved technology but the severity i. e. the risk of untrained personnel is greater especially during repairing or maintaining of robots. Most future employees need to fully realize all the benefits envisaged from the implementation of new systems all based on technological advancement. This is with the sole objective of attaining improved productivity and efficiency which might not be attained with the conventional manual methods. This sounds a warning to all trainees that no employee will wish to recruit someone with the full knowledge that one is not having, even in the least, knowledge on the latest technology of automation. 4. 5 TYPES OF TRAINING There are different types of training that can be performed about improved technology. These are: awareness training, basic user training, advanced application user training, manager and supervisor training and system management training. At whatever capacity in industry, knowledge is very important. After college people end up being either direct users of technology e. g. drafters, designers or managers and supervisors working in different areas such as mechanical engineering, electronic engineering, hydraulic and electric circuit design, NC part programming, sheet metal development, piping layout among others. To be fitted for such fields enough training needs to be done in depth and broadly with the knowledge that training is a practical exercise involving real people in the real world and not a theoretical exercise carried out with perfect students having identical and complete knowledge, experience and skills (Stark, 1988). The cheapest source of training is the one offered at educational institutions though the skill gained can range from poor to excellent. To equip the students or trainees with awareness on technology, the following can be used: Journals and magazines, Exhibitions, Conferences and seminars, Courses, Consultants, Open-learning- which allows the trainee the opportunity to learn wherever, whenever and at whatever pace. Awareness programs of seminars, literature, videos sponsored by industry associations, government departments and educational institutions. To offer effective result, coupling all these sources of awareness with practical and hands-on experience is of paramount importance. If one of the main aims of teaching is to build confidence, and confidence is acquired as a result of experience, then it follows that for any teaching process to be effective it has to be about promoting and extending opportunities to experience the subject. CHAPTER FIVE 5. 0 DESIGN ANALYSIS 5. 1 DESIGN ALTERNATIVES Alternative 1 Figure 5. 1 Alternative design 1 Figure 5. 2 Alternative design 2 5. 1. 1 Comparison of alternatives |Parameters |Alternative 1 |Alternative 2 | |1. Complexity of mechanism |simple |complex | |2. Cost at a glance |expensive |cheaper | |3. Technology of part production |involving |simple | |4. Power transmission |Adequate access |Limited means | |5. Safety |safer |Less safe | |6. Gripper mechanism | Simple and efficient |Simple and efficient | |7. Size |smaller |small | |8. Efficiency |More efficient |Less efficient | |9. Performance |excellent |good | |10. Reliability |excellent |good | From this comparison alternative 1 was chosen. Though the cost at a glance is high and technology of part production is involving and a little bit costly, it’s chosen because it is superior in the other comparison parameters. 5. 2 SPECIFICATIONS 5. 2. 1 Task Specifications 5. 2. 1. 1 Performance Specifications The designed system is to grasp a box of shape shown below, from a working table [pic] Figure 5. 3 Shape of object to be grasped Lift it up to gain a clearance from the working table surface Carry it through the required angle to some new position on another table. The load or box should then be brought to the surface of the new table after which the load is released. After release the arm moves to the initial position ready to repeat the sequence. 5. 2. 1. 2 Design Specifications Grasping of box or load is achieved through the gripper shown below. The gripper is operated by a chain and sprocket mechanism which is powered by a motor. The lifting action is achieved through a rack and pinion arrangement. The pinion is driven by a motor via a belt arrangement. Rotation is achieved through a motor driven gearbox. This motion is transmitted to the rotating member (shaft) through a flange coupling and to the entire design through a woodruff key. After rotating, reverse rotation of the motor helps give reverse rotation of the pinion. This helps lower the load to the surface of the second work table. Release of the load is through reverse in rotation of the motor driving the chain and sprocket arrangement. A reverse in the rotation of reduction gearbox helps the entire system back ti the initial position ready for the next task. 5. 2. 1. 3 Dimensional Specifications Figure 5. 4 Determination of principal dimensions Maximum height-1m Maximum reach-0. 5m Maximum lift of beam-0. 4m Maximum opening of gripper-50mm 5. 3 EXTENT OF THE ANALYSIS The more detailed parts of the analysis have been confined to the gripper mechanism. Other design features concerned with functional efficiency are examined and commented on in less detail. Comments on the belts, hollow sections, chains, and sprockets, fasteners, washers, couplings, safety actors, keys and keyways are confined to general descriptive notes. Finally an assessment is made of the whole machine in relation to functional, aesthetic and ergonomic criteria. 5. 4 GRIPPER MECHANISM ANALYSIS [pic]Figure 5. 5 Gripper mechanism 5. 4. 1 Gripping Force Consider the end section of the gripper with all forces indicated as shown below. [pic] Figure 5. 6 End section of gripper Let Mg-weight of object being picked P1 – Gripping force –acting on both sides to ensure no slip. They share the weight of the object. P1 = µN Where N- normal reaction that is perpendicular to the surface of the object  µ-coefficient of friction NB: N=P2 From balancing of forces in the y-direction 2P2 = Mg P2 = [pic]=N Since P1 =  µN Then P1 = [pic] Let the mass of the object = 10Kg. The mass of Most of the components that can be handled in the mechanical engineering workshops during laboratories range between 1Kg and 10Kg. the higher value is taken to even cater for the intermediate weights. From appendix of typical coefficient of static friction values for various material combinations: The value of coefficient of friction,  µ, will range from 0. 30-0. 60 i. e. For steel-woven asbestos. Taking the lower  µ then,  µ=0. 30 P1 = [pic] = [pic] = 14. 715N Total clamping force = P1+ P1 = 29. 3 N 5. 4. 2 Torque required to produce desired clamping force-Power screws Standard bolts with 60? threads are widely used to impart a clamping force T= W [[pic][pic] Where T= torque applied to turning screw W= load parallel to screw axis rm= mean thread radius rc= effective radius of rubbing surface against which load bears, called collar ra dius f= coefficient of friction between screw and sprocket gripper threads fc= coefficient of friction at collar ? = helix angle of thread at mean radius ?n = angle between tangent to tooth profile (on the loaded side) and a radial line, measured in plane normal to thread helix at mean radius. Illustration of edge [pic] Figure 5. 7 Power screw motions Alternatively, The average value of the tightening or clamping Torque, T can be shown to be: For, Course thread,  µ = 0. 15 T= 0. 195dw Course thread,  µ = 0. 10 T= 0. 135dw Fine thread,  µ = 0. 15 T= 0. 189dw Fine thread,  µ = 0. 10 T= 0. 130dw Diameter, d in these equations is the major or nominal diameter (illustration above) Values of coefficient of friction for the threads of translation screws have been determined by investigations and have been found to depend on the quality of materials, workmanship in cutting threads, degree of â€Å"running in† of the threads and lubrication. Published articles on experiments for screw-thread friction indicate that the following values would be a good estimate of the coefficient of friction. * Mean value of  µ = 0. 15 Range of variation  ± 33% Let the nominal diameter = 0. 5† T= 0. 195 x d x w = 0. 195x 0. 5 x29. 43 = 2. 87 Nm The screw threads are on two sides Therefore Total torque =2T = 2x 2. 87 = 5. 74 Nm *Lambert, T. H. , â€Å"Effects of Variations in the Screw –Thread Coefficient of Friction on the Clamping Force of Bolted Connections,† J. Mech. Eng. Sci. , 4, 1962, P. 401. 5. 4. 3 Power Required Let the gripper grip the object in 2seconds Let the smallest component it can hold be 50mm Therefore from the plan view of the gripper above (fig. ) the distance, s it is supposed to cover to clamp the load is: s= [pic] =75mm Since the power screw is double-threaded. Linear speed, ? = [pic] = [pic] = [pic] = 0. 0375 m/s Let the pinion diameter = 20mm Then from, ? =? r ? = [pic] =3. 75 rads/sec Since both sides move. Number of revolutions ?= [pic] [pic] = [pic] =35. 81 r. p. m Power, P P= T ? = 5. 74 x35. 81 = 205. 5W 5. 4. 4 Pins Two pins are used in the knuckle joint connecting the bars of the gripper that is in tension. 5. 5 HOLLOW SECTIONS Hollow sections are used in this design. These sections are more recent than channels, tees and angles. The chief advantage of the hollow form lies in the combination of rigidity, strength and lightness resulting from the metal being distributed around rather than on the axes of the section. Hollow circular sections give great torsional rigidity because of the relatively high polar second moment of area, and equal resistance to bending in all planes because of the symmetry of the cross-section. Another advantage of the hollow section is the smaller external surface area requiring painting (about 30-40% less than an equivalent rolled steel solid section. and hence the lower maintenance costs involved. Also, the convex surface of a tube does not provide recesses in which moisture can be retained, so reducing the possibility of corrosion on the outside. The joining of hollow structural members too, is easy through welding (metal arc welding) 5. 6 BELT A V-belt was chosen for this design because of these advantages: Compactnes s of design-the center distance in this particular design is small. Smoothness which is possible because the V-belt is endless. Bearing life-because of lower belt tensions, lower bearing loads are possible. Also, since this type of belt readily absorbs shock, bearing life is lengthened. Dependability- Maintenance- except for occasional tightening of the drive(required to correct stretching and creeping), little maintenance is required. 5. 6. 1 Dimensions of belt cross sections The V-belt must fit the pulley so that it does not make contact with the bottom of the groove. This arrangement avoids any radially outward reaction from the groove bottom, and eliminates the possible formation of a cushion of air being entrained at high belt speeds, either of which would tend to force the belt away from the groove sides and so slip. Belt dimensions corresponding to their cross section symbols are given in appendix II 5. 7 FASTENERS Fasteners are devices that permit one machine part to be joined to the second part. Hence, fasteners are involved in almost all designs; this design being no exception. The acceptability of any product depends not only on the selected components but also on the means by which they are fastened together. The principal purposes of fasteners are to provide the following design features: ? Disassembly for inspection and repair ? Modular design where a product consists of a number of sub-assemblies. There are three main classifications of fasteners: Removable- this type permits the pars to be readily disconnected without damaging the fastener. An example is the ordinary nut and bolt fastener. Semi-permanent- for this type the parts can be disconnected but some damage usually occur to the fastener. One such example is a cotter pin. Permanent- this type is used when it is intended that the parts will never be disassembled for example rivets. The following factors were taken into consideration in the selection of fasteners for this application: i. Primary function of fastener ii. Appearance iii. A large number of small-size fasteners versus a small number of large-size fasteners ( an example is bolts) iv. Operating conditions such as vibration loads and temperature v. Frequency of disassembly vi. Adjustability in the location of parts vii. Types of materials to be joined viii. Consequences of failure or loosening of the fastener. 5. 8 WASHERS Washers are frequently used with bolted fasteners. The most common type is the plain washer. Such a washer increases the bearing area under the nut or head of a bolt. Hence, plain washers are used to protect mating surfaces of bolted parts. They are especially needed when the parts are made of soft metals that can be easily damaged by a turning nut or bolt head during tightening. Lock washers are used to keep bolted fasteners from loosening. One type provides a spring force that helps maintain the desired bolt tension. In another type the lock washer has protruding teeth that dig into the fastener and mating parts and prevents loosening. Sometimes it is absolutely necessary that a bolted fastener not come loose even as a result of vibration. In such cases, a positive type lock washer is used. This type of washer contains a tab that is bent up against the flat portion of the nut or bolt head. The tab prevents rotational motion of the nut or bolt head. 5. 9 COUPLINGS Coupling refers to a device used to join two shafts. Shaft couplings are also required to couple machines manufactured separately e. g. electric motors with pumps. 5. 9. 1 Flange coupling This is the one that has been used in this design. This is a rigid type of coupling used for connecting shafts; 18-200mm diameter. Two flanges are used to join coaxial shafts; two cast iron flanges keyed to the ends of shafts, fastened together by means of a number of tight fitting bolts. Advantages Simple in design Cheap Dependable Require less maintenance Can transmit high torques The torque is transmitted by frictional forces acting between the faces of the coupling halves or it is transmitted by the connection bolts which are subjected to shear. The bolts work in shear only when they are precisely fitted without any clearance in the mounting holes. Disadvantages Unsuitable for absorbing shock loads No flexibility- incapable of equalizing effects of misalignment Difficult to loosen hence, wheels, pulleys and other mounted parts have to be in two parts. 5. 9. 2 Derivation of flange coupling formula First, it is assumed that none of the torque is transmitted as a result of friction between the interface of two flanges. This assumption is conservative because the clamping force of the bolts is quite large . However, frictional forces are unpredictable especially if the bolts undergo relaxation. We are therefore assuming that all the torque is transmitted through the bolts. For equilibrium, the summation of each bolt shear force multiplied by its moment arm to the centre of rotation equals to the torque, T. The torque is given by: T =Fb xZx [pic] =Ab x ? x Z x [pic] Where Fb –circumferential force on each bolt Z- Number of bolts K- Bolt circle diameter Ab –x-sectional area of each bolt The equation assumes that the load is equally shared by each bolt. That is each bolt must fit tightly in each hole without any radial clearance. The shear stress ? is taken to be 0. 25 the yield strength of the bolt material For calculation purposes, an Impact Factor is taken into account. This is given by: Tmax= C x Tnom Where Tmax -maximum torque Tnom -nominal torque C- Impact Factor 5. 10 SAFETY FACTORS Allowable stress This is the safe limiting stress, which is predetermined by taking cognizance of the operating conditions of the designed part. This strength criterion is also sometimes called working stress or permissible stress. Normally, to safeguard against permanent set or plastic deformation, the allowable stress is kept well within the elastic limit or yield point The following are relations for the static working conditions: Ductile material Allowable stress = [pic] Brittle material Allowable stress = [pic] Where F-factor of safety scf- stress concentration factor The factor of safety is a design criterion. The selection is at the discretion of the designer based on experience, authorities, and level of knowledge. The safety factor is very important as it is used to account for the unknown aspects and the various uncertainties. In this design a factor of safety of 1. 25 has been taken. 5. 11 KEYS AND KEY-WAYS A key is a rigid connector between a shaft and the hub of another component such as a pulley. A key helps prevent relative rotation between the parts. If a key is to be used a key seat must be provided in the shaft and a keyway in the hub of the other part. A key seat weakens the shaft and this forces a reduction in the design stress. 5. 11. 1Wood ruff key This is a spherical type of sunk key. It is semi circular in shape and is cut from a round bar or disk. The key seat in the shaft is also semi-circular in shape in which the key fits. The top of the key fits into a plain rectangular keyway in the hub and the key seat is equal to the thickness of the key. The key way is just half key seat. The key can be easily adjusted in the recess. It is largely used on machine tools and automobile work. It accommodates itself to any taper in the hub of the mating surface. It is used on tapering shaft ends. Figure 5. 8 Woodruff key CHAPTER SIX 6. 0COMPONENT PRODUCTION 6. 1 PARAMETERS FOR OPTIMUM PRODUCTION Optimum production is associated to the following parameters; 6. 1. 1 Product Analysis The elements of product analysis that should be taken into account are: i. Nature, kind and properties of raw materials i. Quality specifications and tolerances iii. Quantity to produce 6. 1. 2 Operation Analysis On the basis of tentative ideas of product analysis operation analysis is done. For operation analysis it is necessary to decide: i. what operation should be done ii. sequence to follow so that the desired product could be made economically 6. 1. 3 Machine Analysis It is necessary to know which machine should be used for a particular operation so that economy of production is maintained 6. 1. 4 Operator Analysis On the basis of the tentative ideas of machine analysis, operator analysis is done. For handling different machines different type of operator is needed. This may be skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled. 6. 2 RESOURCE REQUIREMENT The following resources are needed for the production exercise: 6. 2. 1 Capital Resources The available capital resources include machinery and manufacturing equipment in the mechanical engineering department workshops. These include: lathe machines, drilling machine, milling machine 6. 2. 2 Tooling Resources The available tooling resources are the consumables like the cutting tools which include; drills, lathe tools, milling cutters and the specific jigs and fixtures for machining and/or welding. 6. 2. 3 Material Resources The materials required in the manufacture include: Raw materials like metal bars and metal sheets Standardized finished components such as nuts and bolts, washers, bushes, bearings Subassemblies like the electric motors 6. 2. 4 Human Resources The technicians in the mechanical and production workshops are to be involved directly or ind

The taming of the shrew character profile Essays

The taming of the shrew character profile Essays The taming of the shrew character profile Paper The taming of the shrew character profile Paper Essay Topic: The Taming Of the Shrew Widely reputed throughout Padua to be a shrew, Katherine is foul-tempered and sharp-tongued at the start of the play. She constantly insults and degrades the men around her, and she is prone to wild displays of anger, during which she may physically attack whomever enrages her. Though most of the play characters simply believe Katherine to be inherently ill-tempered, it is certainly plausible to think that her unpleasant behavior stems from unhappiness. She may act like a shrew because she is miserable and desperate. There are many possible sources of Katherineà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s unhappiness: she expresses jealousy about her fathers treatment of her sister, but her anxiety may also stem from feelings about her own undesirability, the fear that she may never win a husband, her loathing of the way men treat her, and so on. In short, Katherine feels out of place in her society. Due to her intelligence and independence, she is unwilling to play the role of the maiden daughter. She clearly abhors societys expectations that she obey her father and show grace and courtesy toward her suitors. At the same time, however, Katherine must see that given the rigidity of her social situation, her only hope to find a secure and happy place in the world lies in finding a husband. These inherently conflicting impulses may lead to her misery and poor temper. A vicious circle ensues: the angrier she becomes, the less likely it seems she will be able to adapt to her prescribed social role; the more alienated she becomes socially, the more her anger grows. Despite the humiliations and deprivations that Petruccio adds to her life, it is easy to understand why Katherine might succumb to marry a man like him. In their first conversation, Petruccio establishes that he is Katherines intellectual and verbal equal, making him, on some level, an exciting change from the easily dominated men who normally surround her. Petruccios forcible treatment of Katherine is in every way designed to show her that she has no real choice but to adapt to her social role as a wife. This adaptation must be attractive to Katherine on some level, since even if she dislikes the role of wife, playing it at least means she can command respect and consideration from others rather than suffer the universal revulsion she receives as a shrew. Having a social role, even if it is not ideal, must be less painful than continually rejecting any social role at all. Thus, Katherines eventual compliance with Petruccis self-serving straining appears more rational than it might have seemed at first: by the end of the play, she has gained a position and even an authoritative voice that she previously had been denied. Petruchio Petruccio is a gentleman from Verona. Loud, boisterous, eccentric, quick-witted, and frequently drunk, he has come to Padua à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½to wive and thrive.à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ He wishes for nothing more than a woman with an enormous dowry, and he finds Kate to be the perfect fit. Disregarding everyone who warns him of her shrewishness, he eventually succeeds not only in wooing Katherine, but in silencing her tongue and temper with his own. The boastful, selfish, mercurial Petruccio is one of the most difficult characters in The Taming of the Shrew: his behavior is extremely difficult to decipher, and our interpretation of the play as a whole changes dramatically depending on how we interpret Petruccis actions. If he is nothing more than a vain, uncaring, greedy chauvinist who treats marriage as an act of domination, then the play becomes a dark comedy about the materialism and hunger for power that dictate marriages under the guise of courtly love. If, on the other hand, Petruccio is actually capable of loving Kate and conceives of taming her merely as a means to realize a happy marriage, then the play becomes an examination of the psychology of relationships. A case can be made for either interpretation, but the truth about Petruccio probably lies somewhere in between: he is unabashedly selfish, materialistic, and determined to be his wifes lord and master, but he also loves her and realizes on some level that domestic harmony (on his terms, of course) would be better for her than her current life as a shrew in Padua. To this extent, Petruccio goes to alarming lengths to impose his mastery on Kate, keeping her tired and hungry for some time after their marriage, but he also insists on framing this treatment in a language of love, indicating his eagerness for Kate to adapt to her rightful, socially appointed place and his willingness to make their marriage a happy one. Above all, Petruccio is a comic figure, an exaggerated persona who continually makes the audience laugh. And though we laugh with Petruccio as he Kate, we also laugh at him, as we see him satirize the very gender inequalities that the plot of The Taming of the Shrew ultimately upholds.